Module One

Philosophy

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Post-Positivism vs. Post-Modernism

Key Terms and Definition

Purpose of Evaluation

Steps in Conducting an Evaluation

Post-Positivism vs. Post-Modernism

I believe it is helpful to know something about what our societal beliefs about where assessment comes from. There are at least as many philosophies as there are philosophers, but two philosophical perspectives are currently dominating education. One is post-positivism and the other is post-modernism. Post-positivists believe there is an objective reality and that we can know the one right truth. Post-modernists believe that there are multiple realities and that all are equally true. Our emphasis in education is the one, right answer and that truth can be best discovered through the use of the scientific method. Here is a comparison of the two philosophical perspectives:

	Post-Positivism	Post-Modernism
Ontology is how we define truth	there exists an apprehendible, objective reality	multiple realities (all equally valid; truth does not equal fact)
Epistemological is the way we come to know truth	knowing is done in separate foci for the researcher and the subject	researcher and subject are inseparable

Two of my favorite quotes help to describe post-positivism and the actions of teachers today:

"When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind."

The Kelvin Dictum (mid 1850's)

"There are are very few things which we know; which are not capable of being reduced to a Mathematical Reasoning; and when they cannot, it's a sign our Knowledge of them is very small and confused."

John Arbuthnot (1692)

SOURCE: Stigler, Stephen M. (1986). The history of statistics: The measurement of uncertainty before

1900

. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University.

We, teachers, as a group, believe that once we have attached a number to an assessment, that now it is objective and defensible. This may or may not be true, but we certainly put a lot of effort into creating ways of attaching numbers to student achievement.

I would like you to reflect on your philosophical perspective. First, know that there are two ways of arriving at a philosophical perspective that you personally own. One is to inherit it --- you acquire it from significant people in your life. The other is to adopt it --- you consciously and critically examine the philosophies known to you and make a decision about which one most closely matches your beliefs.

Please click here for Activity 1: "Upon Reflection..."

Key Terms and Definition

Definitions that will be helpful:

Assessment is the set of procedures used to evaluate student achievement and instructional effectiveness. It includes tests, homework assignments, class projects, class presentations, class participation, and teacher observation.

Nature of assessment refers to whether we want to determine a student’s typical performance, this is what s/he does on an average day, or a student’s maximum performance, this is what s/he does on his/her best day.

Form of assessment refers to whether we develop an assessment that is an objective test or a performance assessment. Objective tests are used most often in the content areas: language arts, math, social studies, and science. Performance assessments are used most often in art, music, physical education, business education, and vocational education.

Type of assessment refers to the way we ask students to respond to the assessments. For objective tests there are at least six types of items: multiple choice, alternate choice, matching, short answer, keyed response, and interpretive exercise. For performance assessments there are at least three responses: active (speech, drama, playing an instrument, playing a sport), product (art work, mobile, written report), and essay questions.

Measurement is defined as the assignment of numbers to the results of an assessment according to a specific rule. When we evaluate a class project with a narrative, such as, "This was well done!" we have not used measurement. When we evaluate the same class project with a number, such as, "This project earned 96%" we have assigned a number and have used measurement. There are many types of measurement instruments. Teachers will use standardized tests, teacher-constructed tests, student assignments (homework, class projects), and informal measurement (observation of classroom participation). Only when a teacher gives a student a number as a grade has measurement taken place.

Test is a single, specific instrument we use to evaluate learning and instruction.

Norm-Referenced tests are those tests whose results are compared to some norming group. This means that the results from one student’s test are compared to the results from other students taking the same test and who are assumed to be representative of that one student’s age or grade. The interpretation is made concerning how well that one student did compared to other students his/her own age or grade placement. These will be covered more in the module on Interpretation.

Criterion-Referenced tests are those tests whose results are compared to some master list of objectives. This means that the results from one student’s test are compared to a master list of objectives and the results are interpreted as identifying which objectives were met and which were not met. These will be covered more in the module on Interpretation.

Purpose of Evaluation

Evaluation is used to make instructional decisions. A teacher may give an assessment prior to any instruction being given. This would enable him/her to group the students and/or to assess the readiness of students. Do they have the prior knowledge needed to succeed?

A teacher may give an assessment about midway through the unit or chapter being taught. This would enable him/her to assess the appropriateness of his/her teaching plans and to diagnose learning errors or problems. This is what your text calls formative assessment.

A teacher often gives an assessment at the end of the unit or chapter to assess student achievement and to assign grades. This is what your text calls summative assessment.

Evaluation also enables teachers to determine how often and how to assess learning / teaching and the referral of particular students to additional services.

Steps in Conducting an Evaluation

To conduct an adequate evaluation, the teacher must clearly define what is to be assessed. This usually involves the identification of learning outcomes stated as behavioral objectives. Those of you who have taken curriculum will find some of the module on objectives repetitive. Still, you must go through it since there are various ways of writing objectives, and method you will learn in this course will make it easier to create your evaluation instruments.

Second, the teacher will need to choose or create appropriate assessment instrument(s) / procedure(s). These may include a test, a homework assignment, a class project, or a performance of some kind.

Third, the teacher will provide relevant instruction.

Identifying objectives, creating the assessment, and then providing instruction may not be the order that you are familiar with or that seems most logical to you. However, if the assessment procedure(s) are created after instruction is given, there is a tendency to assess only what the teacher remembers teaching. In addition, the assessmentmay not cover all the objectives and will not reflect which objectives are met or not met. If the assessment procedure(s) are created before instruction, they are based on objectives. Then the results of the assessment will indicate what behavioral objectives were met and which were not met. Those objectives that are missed by a majority of students may indicate that the instruction was not sufficient in those areas.

Fourth, the teacher administers the assessment in order to discover what students have achieved AND how effective his/her instruction was. The assessment results will enable teachers to evaluate 3 areas. One, the teacher must evaluate the test itself and determine his/her ability to create valid, reliable, and useful assessment procedures. Two, the teacher can determine how much his/her students have learned. Three, the teacher will judge how effective the instruction has been.

Fifth, the teacher makes instructional decision(s). These include pacing the presentation of content, evaluating the materials used, evaluating class interactions, and assessing instructional methods. This then leads back into the first step. This is NOT a linear process. It is cyclical. It is frequently referred to as the C-I-A cycle. The C is curriculum, the I is instruction, and the A is assessment. Objectives should be impacting all three; so one model of this might be:

Points to remember: Measurement and assessment provide more systematic, objective, defensible, evidence on which to base instructional decisions. The teacher is still the observer and decision-maker. The effectiveness of instruction depends upon the quality and nature of the information on which decisions are based. This means that instruction and student learning can only be improved when our methods of evaluation are valid and reliable; they must be high-quality instruments. It is also best to use a variety of assessment procedures.

Please click here for Activity 2: "Splitting Hairs?" and Activity 3: "Group Hug Anyone?"

Readings

Chapter 1 -- Linn R.L. & Gronlund, N.E. (1995). Measurement and assessment in teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.