The qualitative research process requires a paradigm shift as we move our focus from quantitative research designs to differentiate it from the qualitative research process. In order to facilitate this process; lets look at some historical perspective concerning the quantitative paradigm.
 

• The quantitative world view is consistent with beliefs of an empirical/analytical paradigm. This holds to the belief knowledge of the whole is broken down and can be known from a study of the parts. The "scientific paradigm" was established in the 16^th century with a separate and unique branch of knowledge from the prevailing paradigm of religion and ethics. The 18^th century is considered the period of Enlightenment. During this time the empirical/analytical paradigm of knowledge was fostered known as positivism. In its most rigid form this is known as logical positivism. Focus was for measuring and quantifying phenomena as distinct and analytically separate. Statistical analysis resulted in inferences about the whole being drawn from analysis of the parts.
• The world view for qualitative research assumes multiple realities are created by people. Value is placed on perceptions and experiences of people. There is recognition of the unique context from which experiences arise. The focus is on human experience in a naturalistic setting. Qualitative research recognizes the subjective experience as being as legitimate as the objective experience. Where quantitative research attempts to find answers to parts of the whole, qualitative designs are more holistic and consider the interrelationship of body, mind, spirit, and environment. The qualitative world view holds the "putting the pieces together makes for the whole." Qualitative world view originated with philosophers and sociologists in the mid twentieth century. The purpose of qualitative research is to form new gestalts (world views). This occurs as the research gets "outside of" common beliefs and begins to try to experience the process of the phenomena being investigated . By use of intuition one is able to jump from one gestalt to another.
• Design of qualitative studies is determined by theory and questions just as in quantitative studies.
• Qualitative studies are used when little is known about a subject or what is known does not "ring true".

Qualitative studies are designed to:

1. describe a phenomenon
2. sensitize others to the experience of a phenomenon
3. develop research instruments
4. create a theoretical explanatory model.

A term which has been used synonymously with qualitative research is "naturalistic inquiry". Naturalistic inquiry occurs in a natural setting. There are 8 attributes of naturalistic inquiry:

1. purpose: varies from descriptive knowledge to theory generation
2. context: goes with the setting
3. pluralistic: reality based
4. transferability: not generalizeable
5. flexibility: change as necessary
6. language
7. perspective: either emic or etic
8. information gathering: analysis

MAJOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS:

1. Phenomenological

• Began with philosophers Kant and Hegel in 18^th century. 2^nd phase of movement began with Husserl and Heidegger.
• Aim of phenomenological research is to
• Examine the meaning of life through lived experiences of individuals
• Find differences among individuals; explores inner world of human beings
• Identify common meanings and relational themes
• Describe experiences as they are lived

Method includes bracketing and intuiting.

BRACKETING: requires researcher to acknowledge any previous knowledge, ideas, or beliefs about phenomenon under investigation. This is bracketed or separated out in order for the researcher to remain impartial about phenomenon.

INTUITING: means researcher is immersed in description of lived experience.

Types of Phenomenology

Hermaneutic: method of analysis used to interpret text. Originally developed to study scripture.

Eidetic: refers to extraordinarily accurate and vivid recall of events.

1. Grounded Theory

• Glaser and Strauss (1967) were early pioneers
• Later (1969) Blumer identified symbolic interactions with people. Symbolic interaction focuses on nature of social interaction among individuals
• The aim of grounded theory is to discover fundamental patterns of social life or basic social processes.
• Data collection done through participant observation, informal interviewing method used.
• Use code, analyze, recode to produce a theory

1. Ethnographic

• Oldest qualitative research method
• Essence is the anthropological perspective. The aim is to gain understanding of cultureís world view as well as rules, norms, and values. It is essential to be accepted by the cultural group working with. Researcher often becomes a participant in cultural scene.
• In health care research, ethnographic type studies can be done to understand institutions or groups of professionals or patients.

Other Designs:

Historical

• Historians are searching for patterns as a way to understand phenomena
• Find patterns among voluminous details describing subject matters of study.

Case Studies

• Both case studies and life history may be used as part of ethnographic research design.

	Phenomenology	Grounded Theory	Ethnography
Purpose	Understand meaning of a specific human experience	Generate theory about social structure and processes	Describe a culture
Intellectual Roots Subjects	Philosophy Persons who have lived the experience	Sociology All persons involved in a social process	Anthropology All persons; past and present in a culture
Data Sources	Interviews Diaries Review of art, music, and literature	Interviews Participant observation Document review	Interviews Participant observation Document review
Data Analysis	Reflection on the data, explication of themes, constitutive patterns, essences of the experience	Constant comparative analysis	Constant comparative analysis
Focus of Interviews and Analysis	Common practices, exemplars, paradigm cases	Phases, dimensions, properties of the social structure	Domains, taxonomies, components, cultural terms
Research Outcome	Full, rich description of a human experience	Integrated, parsimonious theory with concepts that have analytic imagery	Well described cultural scene

Number of subjects is not determined in the proposal stage. In qualitative studies, purpose is to explore meanings and phenomena; an adequate sample size is one large enough to accomplish this goal.