Modules

Module Two    Literature Review & Research Problems
Additional Module 2 Notes  

Literature Review

Importance of Conducting a Review of the Literature
 
Steps in Reviewing the Literature  
 
Research Problems 
 
Kinds of Research Questions
 
Characteristics of Good Research Questions
 
Characteristics of Good Research Hypothesis 

Two Reasons for Identifying the Hypothesis Before Conducting the Study
 
Five Principal Purposes Served by the Hypothesis
 
Two Types of Research Hypotheses 

Inductive Hypothesis 
Deductive Hypothesis 
 
Five Criteria of a Useable Hypothesis
  
Evaluation of Hypothesis
 
Characteristics of Null (or Statistical ) Hypothesis 

Importance of Conducting a Review of the Literature  

1. presenting the overall framework for where this piece of research fits 

2. providing a comprehensive understanding about what is known about the topic 

3. persuading financial supporters and/or publishers that the researcher has sufficient knowledge in the area to undertake the investigation  
 

Steps in Reviewing the Literature  

1. Identify a research topic

2. Review secondary sources 

3. Develop a research strategy 

4. Conduct searches of articles

5. Obtain sources 

6. Read and prepare bibliographic information and notes 

7. Evaluate the research reports 

8. Analyze the findings and synthesize the results 

9. Use synthesis to develop conceptual framework

Research Problems 
 
Kinds of Research Questions 

1. Descriptive -- designed to produce information about what is happening (describes current stat of affairs)

2. Normative -- information is compared with a standard or expected observation 

3. Correlative -- identify relationships to enable the explanation of phenomena 

4. Impact -- identify effects and establish a causal link 
 

stated in the form of a question  

includes variables and their relationship to each other  

is operationalized (variables of interest can be measured) 
  

Characteristics of Good Research Hypotheses 
 

put forth as a possible explanation, then reasoned upon as if it were true 

are not absolutely essential in all research studies  

are tools, not ends in themselves  

can find support for; cannot prove 

Two reasons for identifying the research hypothesis before conducting the study  
 

1.Indicates that the researcher has sufficient knowledge in the area to undertake the investigation 

2. Gives direction to the collection and interpretation of the data will guide the research design: variables, sampling, time frame, instruments, statistical methods, etc. 

Five principal purposes served by the hypothesis 
 

1. Provides a tentative explanation of phenomena 

2. Facilitates the extension of knowledge in an area 

3. Provides a relational statement that is directly testable in a research study  -- focus on relationships that are amenable to direct observation 

4. Provides direction to the study -- keeps it restricted in scope; identifies the parameters for the study 

5. Provides a framework for reporting the conclusions of the study 
  

Two types of research hypotheses 
 

1. Inductive Hypothesis 
 
Formulated as a generalization from observed relationships 

Researcher makes observations of behavior 

Notices trends or probable relationships 

Hypothesizes an explanation for this observed behavior 

Must be accompanied by an examination of previous research 

Put forth as a suggested solution / answer to research questions based on  identification of a problem 
 

2. Deductive Hypothesis 
 
Derived by deduction from theory 

Predictions for research questions grounded in theory 

Advantage - leads to a more general system of knowledge, because the  framework for incorporating them meaningfully into the body of  knowledge already exists within the theory itself 

Theories are general explanations that apply to a wide range of  phenomena; From the inter-relationships proposed in the theory, one  
can state specific consequences that could logically be assumed to follow. These consequences form the basis for hypotheses and must be checked for any logical gaps between theory and hypothesis. 

Five criteria of a useable hypothesis 
 

1. Must have explanatory power 

2. Must state the expected relationship between variables (directional versus non-directional) that specifies the direction of the relationship versus not predicting the direction 

3. Must be testable 

4. Should be consistent with the existing body of knowledge (another reason for comprehensive review of the literature)

5. Should be stated as simply and concisely as possible (principal of parsimony -- simpler is better)

Evaluation of Hypothesis 
 

1) does it express a measurable relationship between and among variables? 

2) is it written as a declarative statement? 

3) is it related to a theoretical statement? 

4) does it use statistical terms? 

5) is it written in terms of relationships between constructs? 

6) does it use words which indicate a value judgment? 
   

"More hypotheses are rejected than are supported" (Darwin)  

Characteristics of Null (or Statistical ) Hypothesis 
 

stated in form of no impact or no effect or no relationship  

is the only hypothesis tested by statistical analysis (against chance)  

used because it enables researchers to compare their findings with chance expectations through statistical tests  

assumed to be true until there is sufficient evidence to indicate otherwise  

assumes that any differences occurred due to chance  

determines the probability that the null hypothesis is true  

If the observed differences could easily be a function of chance, the evidence is insufficient and we fail to reject the null hypothesis.  

If the observed differences could not easily be a function of chance, the evidence is sufficient to reject the null hypothesis in favor of an alternative hypothesis.  

if found to be rejected, then research hypothesis is supported  

if fail to reject null hypothesis, then theory will need revision  

cannot prove  

leads to future areas of research