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Religion is another of the universal cultural characteristics which anthropologists study. The practice of religion apparently dates back at least 60,000 years and is found in every culture ever studied, past or present. While the discipline of anthropology is not interested in which religion is the best, it is interested in why its practice is universal. Four major theories have been proposed. Edward Tylor proposed that people simply needed to understand such things as dreams, trances, and death. Sigmund Freud believed that religion was an outgrowth of guilt and remorse of sons for killing their fathers. Bronislaw
Malinowski later hypothesized that religion stemmed from major anxieties, especially about death itself, while Carl Jung felt that religion could act as a therapeutic aid in maturation. Emile Durkheim felt that religion originated with the society and not the individual. He felt that religion symbolized the society, so that it was the society itself that was being worshipped In this way people met their need for community. Religion and religious beliefs come in various forms. Supernatural forces do not have personalities Mana and taboo, the forces for good and evil are examples Supernatural beings can be divided into gods and spirits Gods are named and are usually made in the form of humans They can exist alone, and be supreme, as in monotheism, or they can exist in a panoply of types, as in polytheistic religions, where no one god dominates. Spirits are unnamed. Some may be guardians and others could be hobgoblins. Ghosts and ancestor spirits form a class of beings who were once human. The gods are famous for being able to intervene in human affairs. Clifford Geertz makes the point that people explain unusual events through the intervention of the gods. Finally, the concept of life after death is quite common among religions. The variation between them is quite interesting. How interaction occurs between people and the supernatural is of great interest to anthropologists. This chapter looks cross-culturally at this and shows that some societies pray quietly, while others do loudly. Prayer can be spontaneous or memorized. Some groups use hallucinogenic drugs, alcohol, sensory deprivation, exhaustion, or even repetitive drumming. These practices tend to be used to induce trance. Simulation and divination may be used to ask for guidance from the supernatural. Unlike prayers, which are requests, magic is the act of compelling the supernatural to work in your favor. Magic comes in two basic forms: witchcraft and sorcery. The former is performed through mental or emotional means, while the latter is practiced using material objects. An accusation of witchcraft cannot be proven or disproved, as there is never any evidence. Other practitioners of the supernatural world include shamans, usually a part-time male specialist of high status; mediums, females who act on a part-time basis to heal while in a trance; and priests, usually a full-time male specialists who are able to relate to gods which are beyond the reach of ordinary person's control. The final section of this chapter deals with religion as an adaptive force in society. All religions are argued to be adaptive because they reduce the anxieties and uncertainties that affect all people. Religious change, especially the founding of new religions, is fairly common in areas where some large-scale social changes have occurred. For example, contact with dormant societies, such as that between Europeans and Native American groups in North America have led to several revitalization movements This chapter exemplifies the Seneca, of New York, and Melanesian Cargo Cults.
CHAPTER 16: The Arts -- CHAPTER SUMMARYThe majority of societies have not practiced art for art's sake. Art in most societies has been incorporated into other practices such as religion, social and political life. Even so, art is defined here as having several qualities it expresses as well as communicates; it stimulates the senses, affects emotions, and evokes ideas; it is produced in culturally patterned ways and styles; it has cultural meaning. Some people are felt to be better at it than others. One thing is definite: there is a huge amount of variation in how it is produced and even what is called art. Body decoration is one art form that is practiced in many societies. It can take the form of tattooing, scarring, or changes in shape Body decoration can be used to delineate social status, sex, occupation, local and ethnic identity, or religion within a society. Body adornment can also take on sexual connotations in its erotic significance. Art varies tremendously from society to society Art can take on various forms in the style of visual, music, dance, and folklore. Some interesting conclusions are presented in this chapter. For example, John Fischer notes that egalitarian artists tend to use empty space as a design element while in more complex societies artwork is more crowded In music it has been found that polyphony is related to a high degree of female participation in food-getting Modem folklore (urban legends) is seen as having the same meaning as myths of the past did in earlier societies. Societies that are nomadic have been found to have portable art, such as song, dance, and folklore, while specialized artists are only found in societies with a complex and specialized division of labor |